It is well known that de Mellet in 1781 declared tarot cards to be “hieroglyphes” (http://www.tarotpedia.com/wiki/Recherch ... les_Tarots). That this terminology did not start with him was exhibited on ATF in 2008. Ross and Kwaw (SteveM) posted some pre-de Mellet references, either quotes or summaries by others, about tarot or other cards being called hieroglyphs, from 1570 (tarot, in the Anonymous Discourse), 1603 (probably other cards, a quote from a modern book in French describing a Spanish book of 1603), 1676 (minchiate), and 1748 (other cards). In addition, there were the emblem-book writers, who saw their work as in the same genre as hieroglyphs: Kwaw cites Alciato (1531), and Cesare Ripa (1597). To the extent that cards are like emblems, the inference is that these writers would have classified tarot and other cards the same way, as hieroglyphs.The most relevant 2008 ATF posts related to what I have just summarized are the first and third at: http://www.tarotforum.net/showthread.php?t=94755&page=1.
On this ATF thread, Ross then raised the question of how this notion of cards as hieroglyphs might have affected how the tarot was viewed even earlier than 1570, and especially in the 1400s. His tentative conclusion (stated in the 4th post on the above thread) was that in the 1400s the concept of hieroglyphs was confined to a small group of Florentine scholars and therefore could have had little effect on the developing tarot until after 1499.
That ATF thread pretty much died in 2008 (despite a helpful post by Kwaw in 2009). But reading the thread helped me to realize that I had not researched this area adequately. What I have found since leads me to think quite the opposite of Ross’s conclusion, that the concept of images produced as hieroglyphs was not confined to a small group of scholars in Florence, and that in fact the idea spread to the courts of Milan and Ferrara, and possibly also to Bologna, at precisely the time Ross estimates for the origin of the tarot, that is, 1437-1441. The idea continued to thrive in these places (as well as Florence, Rome, later Venice and the Imperial court) before spreading to France (especially) and the rest of Western Europe after the 1531 Augsburg and 1534 Paris editions of Alciato, 1536 in French, when it reached a large audience in vulgarized form, although the earlier Italian erudite understanding would have spread as well.
I posted the details of what I found out (following up on Kwaw), with quotes and references, at the end of the ATF thread. But the posts are long, and it’s hard to see the forest for the trees. So I thought I would try to start something here, by means of a time-line, going from 1400 to 1600. But to me the part from 1500 to 1600 is only of interest for showing how the idea spread from Italy to the rest of Europe, with some modification in the process. It is the part before 1500 that is of most relevance to the tarot in its early stages. Also, to say where I am going, I thought it might be useful for me to attempt a summary first.
HOW DID THEY UNDERSTAND "HIEROGLYPH" IN THE 15TH CENTURY?--AN ATTEMPT AT A SUMMARY
Hieroglyphs, for the 15th century humanists of the 1420s and 30s, were images of animals and other natural objects first used by the Egyptian priests for their sacred, along with common phonetic letters for other things; later, they thought, the Romans used hieroglyphs on temples and coins. Since coins combined images with short sayings written in the phonetic alphabet, there is the suggestion that short, cryptic sayings even without explicit images could count as hieroglyphs, or at least in the same genre. This is particularly evident in Alberti’s essays “Veiled Sayings” and “Rings,” from the early 1430s. Moreover, the same humanists, using the same sources, who promoted the concept of hieroglyphs also promoted knowledge of Pythagorean maxims, called “symbola.” But as far as I have been able to determine, the idea that hieroglyphs include even, for example, the parables of Jesus, is not explicitly formulated until Valeriano 1556. That is an area for discussion.
The general understanding of hieroglyphs that I have found is quite consistent throughout the period up to 1500, mostly based on writings known before 1400 but also texts made available in the first half of the 15th century. You can read relevant excerpts from some of the ancient sources in the Appendix to Boas’ translation of Horapollo, or go on-line for Diodorus Siculus (Bibl. I.81, at http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer...iculus/1D*.html; and III.4, at http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer...iculus/3A*.html), Plutarch (Isis and Osiris X, at http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer..._Osiris*/A.html, and LVI, at (http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer..._Osiris*/D.html), Ammianus Marcellinus (XVII iv 8-11, at (http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer...Ammian/17*.html), Herodotus (II.36, at http://classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.2.ii.html), Apuleius (11.22, in The Isis Book p. 97, at Google Books), Tacitus (Annals XI, at (http://classics.mit.edu/Tacitus/annals.7.xi.html), etc. Or look in myfirst post on ATF, no. 43, where I have pasted all these. In this understanding, hieroglyphs are images, sometimes accompanied by a short saying or abbreviation, usually combined with one another; most importantly, the meaning is sacred and hidden from the ignorant but knowable by the learned.
Why the meaning is hidden, and how the learned are to determine it, is also said by these humanists, extrapolating from the ancient sources. Meanings are hidden so as to keep the most sacred truths from the ignorant and uninitiated, who will misunderstand. As far as interpreting them, there were two methods. In Diodorus, interpreting them was a matter of knowing the essential properties of the objects represented and then understanding them as metaphors to be combined with the metaphors of other objects to produce noble ideas. That Alberti thought in such terms is evident in his c. 1432 essay "Rings," in which he uses that method on twelve examples of of his own invention--hieroglyphs are not just Egyptian, but can be created by the learned in any age. Alberti cast a self-portrait medal of himself with one of these images, a winged eye, along with a Latin motto; he would certainly have talked about his medal and its hieroglyphic aspect at the great conclave in 1438 Ferrara, which he attended as a member of the Roman curia. That the high and mighty were listening is shown by his influence in Ferrara after that. Alberti's short public exposition of this point is in his De Re Aedificatoria, first version available in manuscript after 1452 and printed 1485.
Another part of understanding hieroglyphs was knowing how they were conventionally understood in ancient times and bringing this analysis to bear in the present. The ancient texts gave examples, which the humanists were happy to share with their (paying) patrons and pupils. When scholars who acquired these texts in various places, especially Florence, migrated to the great courts of Italy, often to tutor its children, then the ancient meanings of hieroglyphs (as they thought) became known to those who aspired to being called wise. So in Milan we have Filelfo ,1440, followed by Filarete, c. 1452, both of whom wrote about the meanings of hieroglyphs in Horapollo's terms, and Valla, c. 1465, a 15th century translator of Horapollo, as tutor to the Sforza in Pavia. In 1429 Ferrara we have Guarino of Verona, translator of Plutarch and Strabo, tutoring Leonello d'Este and staying on as Professor of Rhetoric 1436 and interpreter between Latins and Greeks 1438.
These two approaches to hieroglyphs--as conventional and as natural signs--in fact represented two approaches to language, the Aristotelian view of language as conventional and spoken discursively, vs. the Platonic (in the Cratylus), as mirror of the eternal archetypes, best expressed in pictures, but also found in parables, fables, puns, and, I think could be added, the language of dreams and madmen. (I owe this point to D.L. Drysdall, "Filippo Fasanini and his 'Explanation of Sacred Writing,' Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies 13 (1983):1, p. 128f.) The humanists of the "early Renaissance" (Drysdall's words) honored both approaches.
The next question is, how extensive was this idea, in some form, and what importance did people give to it? This is where the time-line comes in. It is not an answer, of course, just a map. I have omitted the often lengthy quotations from ancient sources and their humanist followers. For them, please consult my posts at the end of “Cards as Hieroglyphs” on ATP, and/or write something here if you have corrections, questions, or additions. I can also put some of them here.
I have not put tarot decks on this time-line. They have their own, well enough known. In general, I imagine no hieroglyphic influence before 1438 (if there were tarot cards then); I see perhaps a little, not very erudite, in the Cary-Yale (the kings at the bottom of the theological virtues). I see more in the PMB and a lot more in the Cary Sheet. In France, between the Noblet, c. 1650, and the Chosson, 1672, the influence is total. I am mainly talking about the "C" cards of Milan and France. It is there that I find the double vision of churchy allegories for the masses and erudite hieroglyphic mysteries for the few, a double vision which the popular illustrated emblem books later did not change. The "A" cards, at least as we have them, seem to me different, mostly only the usual moralistic, churchy allegories that were common even in the Middle Ages. Whether Florence had its own hieroglyphic tarot we'll probably never know--if it existed, the ravages of Savonarola may have destroyed it forever. I don't know enough about the "B" cards of Ferrara to say anything either way, but the Sola-Busca pips are almost certainly hieroglyphic.
TIME LINE: HIEROGLYPHICS IN ITALY, 1400-1531, AND WESTERN EUROPE 1532-1600
By 1400: Comments on hieroglyphs by Plutarch, Horodotus, Diodorus available in Greek. Clement of Alexandria available but apparently not quoted in 15th century. Possibly some of Plutarch’s Moralia describing hieroglyphs translated into Latin. Latin texts readily available and describing hieroglyphs include Martinus Capella, Lucan, Apuleius, Pliny the Elder, Tacitus, Macrobius, Isadore of Seville. Others, such as Eusebius, seem to have been available by mid-century.
1411: Plutarch, “Education of Children” (part of first book of Moralia), containing interpretations of enigmatic Pythagorean sayings or “symbola,” translated into Latin by Guarino of Verona. Guarino will go on to translate Strabo, a major source on Egypt but with only a few mentions of hieroglyphs. Guarino in 1429 moves to Ferrara, initially tutoring the 22 year old Leonello d’Este, from 1436 at University of Ferrara.
1417: Ammianus Marcellinus manuscript (in Latin) found by Poggio at St. Gall, discussing hieroglyphs. Taken to Florence, Niccolo has it transcribed (passage is included in appendix to Boas’ translation of Horapollo, or see http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/R ... n/17*.html, sec. 4). Niccolo also has Apuleius (in Latin), Herodotus, Tacitus (in Latin), some of Pliny the Elder (in Latin), and other texts describing hieroglyphs.
1422: Horapollo’s Hieroglyphica manuscript (in Greek) read by Pogio and Niccolo in Florence.
c. 1422-1430: Pogio identifies the inscriptions on obelisks in Rome as Egyptian hieroglyphs.
1420s: Many Greek manuscripts enter Florence and other Italian cities.
1426: Inventory of Visconti Library, Pavia, lists Clement of Alexandria’s Stromata among holdings, now lost. Also enigmatic alchemical works, i.e. Turba Philosophorum.
c. 1432-1436: Alberti writes “Veiled Sayings,” describing Pythagoras-like sayings in terms similar to those in which he later describes hieroglyphs. The word used for these sayings is “symbola." He also writes “Rings,” describing 12 hieroglyph-like images of his design. Separately, he draws the “winged eye” image described there, which he shows to others and includes on a medal he did of himself, done 1436-1438.
1435-36: Cyriaco visits Egypt, including pyramids at Giza, copies hieroglyphs, may have taken with him a Latin abridgement of Horapollo. Later circulates travel journal.
1437: Alberti in Bologna for Ecumenical Council.
1438: Alberti in Ferrara for Ecumenical Council, meets Leonello d’Este. Alberti probably shows an discusses his "winged eye" medal. Pisanello does a well-received medal of Eastern Emperor John VIII Palaiologos, finished 1439.
1439: Pogio completes his translation of Diodorus, including its comments on hieroglyphs already well known in Greek; circulated to humanists and other Latin-readers.
1440: Filelfo, who had been in Florence, moves to Milan, staying until 1470s.
1440-144: Pisanello in Milan, does medals of Filippo, Francesco, Piccinino.
1443-: Pisanello in Ferrara, doing medals in enigmatic style
1443: Alberti advises equestrian monument competition in Ferrera.
1444: Filelfo writes letter mentioning Horapollo and meaning of “eel” hieroglyph
1440s: Alberti writes initial version of De Re Aedificatoria, saying later it was for Leonello. This book, as published in 1485, has a paragraph on hieroglyphs, based at least in part on Ammianus, and with citations of him by name elsewhere.
1452: Alberti submits De Re Aedificatoria to Pope Nicholas V. It probably enters Vatican Library and is copied for others elsewhere, such as Filarete in Milan. It is the first wholly architectural treatise since Vitrivius.
1447-1455: On commission of Nicholas V, numerous Greek manuscripts translated into Latin and made available to scholars in newly established Vatican Library. Around this same time Cosimo di Medici commissions the translations of texts, a practice continued by Piero and Lorenzo.
1449: Confirmed visit between Leonello d’Este and Cyriaco.
c. 1452: Filarete moves to Milan, soon starting his treatise on architecture, which will include a dialogue between Filarete and unnamed duke discussing hieroglyphs. Credits Filelfo and has his interpretation of “eel” hieroglyph, probably derived, with some distortion, from Horapollo.
1464: Filarete publishes his treatise crediting Filelfo for “eel” hieroglyph interpretation; numerous uncited references to Alberti’s treatise on architecture plus comments praising Alberti by name. Also numerous references to Diodorus.
1465-1485: Giorgio Valla, from Milan, at Pavia. Tutors the sons of Francesco Sforza. Much translation from Greek to Latin. At some point does Horodotus and Horapollo. Moves to Venice for professorship in 1485, dies there 1500.The manuscript of his Latin Horapollo is in the Biblioteca Trivulziana, Milan, ms. 2154, according to Roberto Weiss.
1468: Sweynheym and Pannartz in Rome publish Bessarion’s In calumniatorum Platonis, which argues that Plato, anticipating Christianity, concealed in allegory and paradox that which cannot be expressed discursively and must be hidden from the ignorant. Bessarion earlier, 1440s, ran an informal "academy" in Rome, and was papal prelate in Bologna, 1450-1455. His famous (or infamous) 1452 letter to the sons of Pletho, comparing heaven to the Eleusinian mysteries, is a sample of that earlier time.
1460s: Ficino and Politiano read Plotinus, Clement of Alexandria, Proclus, Iamblichus among others who refer to hieroglyphs and sacred writings in Platonic terms. Starting 1463, Ficino comments on them (but not on Clement’s hieroglyph passage); complete work published 1492. Politiano later cited (by Valeriano) as an early authority on hieroglyphs.
1480s: High demand for Roman coins among the privileged. E.g. Matteo Boiardo writes Ercole d'Este about a new find (reported by Weiss).
1480s: Ferrarino, in Bologna and elsewhere in Northern Italy, composes manuscripts exhibiting numerous obelisk hieroglyphs. Some (e.g. Weiss) think he was also circulating the Latin abridgement of Horapollo now in Naples.
1486: Final version of Alberti’s De Re Aedificatoria published, with hieroglyph passage and numerous citations of Ammianus.
1486: Mantegna starts his Trumphs of Caesar in Mantua, with Egyptian-style hieroglyphs on background monuments.
1486: Pico’s 900 Theses published, each of which is a cryptic short statement, i.e. a symbola (= hieroglyph, as defined by Valeriano later). Writes his Oration, which explains importance of enigmatic writing, relates to Pythagorean symbola. Suppressed until 1494.
1487: All copies of 900 Theses ordered burned by Pope Innocent VIII.
1489: Ficino publishes his Three books on life, which discusses St. Rufinus of Aquilea's comment on the “cross” hieroglyph in pre-Christian Alexandria.
1492: Ficino publishes translation of Plotinus and commentary, including remarks on the sacred dimension of hieroglyphs as expressing the language of God.
1480s-90s: Leonardo da Vinci does numerous paintings in enigmatic style, at first in Florence, then 1482-1500 in Milan. Georgione similarly in Venice, next decade.
1493: Fabricated relief in Viterbo dubbed by Annius (its fabricator) as an Etruscan hieroglyph commemorating Osiris’s rule there. Annius traces Pope’s ancestry to Osiris. In 1580 the city of Viterbo will erect a plaque repeating Annius’s claims, despite objections to Annius long before then from some humanists.
1493-1495: Pinturricio does Osiris frescoes in Borgia Apartments, Vatican.
1494: Pico’s Oration allowed to be published, as well as his 900 Theses.
1499: Hypnerotomachia published by Aldus in Venice, with numerous visual hieroglyphs, called by author emblematura, meaning “mosaic work.” This work may have had limited circulation in manuscript since 1467.
1480s to 1490s: Beroaldo gives students in Bologna an abridged Horapollo plus other writers interpreting hieroglyphs.
1500: Beroaldo’s book on Apuleius, including commentary on the comments on hieroglyphs, published in Bologna.
1504: Gentile Bellini paints St. Mark Preaching in Alexandria in Venice, with hieroglyphics on background obelisk, taken from Hypnerotomachia.
1508: Beroaldo’s essay on Pythagoras’s symbola published posthumously.
1505: Greek text of Horapollo published by Aldus.
1508: Erasmus’s Adagia describing hieroglyphs in first entry, published by Aldus.
1509: Greek text of Plutarch’s Moralia published by Aldus.
1510s: High demand for Greco-Roman statues, reliefs, sarcophagi among the privileged in Rome, especially the clergy, as reported by Weiss.
1514: Manuscript of Pirckheimer’s Latin translation of Horapollo with Durer’s illustrations presented to Emperor Maximilian I. 1518, woodcut of Maximilian surrounded by hieroglyphs, composed by Pirckheimer and designed by Durer.
1517-1522: Latin translations of Horapollo published: Fasanini, Bologna 1517; Trebatius, Strassburg 1518; Beroaldo posthumously, Bologna 1522. Fasanini includes an appendix quoting other ancient authors, possibly deriving from when he was Boroaldo's student. Fasanini also published translations of other ancient works dealing with natural signs.
1531: Alciato's Liber Emblematum published in Augsburg, from manuscript lacking pictures, engravings apparently added by publisher without request or review by Alciato. Reprinted with corrected illustrations and 9 more emblems in Paris 1534, in French 1536; 86 more added 1546; various versions 16th and 17th centuries. Born near Milan, he was educated at Pavia and Bologna 1507-1518, then taught in Avignon til 1522, then back to Milan, then Avignon and Bourges 1527-1533, then Pavia 1533 on.
1543: French translation of Horapollo, with illustrations.
1544: Latin translation of Plutarch’s De Isis et Osiride published in collected works of Cielo Calcagnini under the title Rebus Aegypticus. This work done in Rome 1507-1519, according to Giehlow, endorsed by Manning.
1546: French translation of Hypnerotomachia with revised illustrations, reprinted frequently.
1547: Italian translation of Horapollo.
1551: Cartari, Imagini, in Latin. Illustrations added 1581 and in translations after that.
1556: Valeriano's Hieroglyphica published in Latin, stating explicitly that hieroglyphs include sayings, parables of Jesus, etc. as well as cryptic visual images. Nearly 1000 pages, mostly unillustrated.
Other 16th century emblem books: 1552, Aneau, Lyon, Imagination poetique. 1560, Paradin, Devises Heroiques. 1562, Landi, Costanzo (conte) Lettera dell'illustre S. Costanzo Landi, conte di Compiano. 1562, Ammirato, Naples, Il Rota overo dell'imprese. 1562, Giovio, Lyon, Sententiose imprese. 1564, Sambicus, Antwerp, Emblemata. 1586, Whitney, Leyden,A choice of emblemes (in English). 1593, Ripa, Iconologia. These, and two others without author, are viewable at http://www.digitalbookindex.com/subject ... blembksa/2.
The 15th century understanding of "hieroglyph"
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Last edited by mikeh on 26 Sep 2010, 08:13, edited 1 time in total.